Monday 17 October 2011

How can we define networking?

In information technology, networking is the construction, design, and use of network, including the physical (cabling, hub, bridge, switch, router, and so forth), the selection and use of telecommunication protocol and computer software for using and managing the network, and the establishment of operation policies and procedures related to the network

What is walkie talkie?

A handie talkie, often referred to by its abbreviation, HT, is a handheld, portable two-way radio transceiver. This type of radio is sometimes called a "walkie talkie" or a "handheld." Handie talkies are popular among amateur radio operators, especially on their VHF and UHF bands at 144 and 432 MHz. Handie talkies are widely used by security personnel, military personnel, and police officers. Most HTs are used in conjunction with repeaters for extended range. Some HTs are designed for the 27-MHz Citizens Band (CB) radio service. A typical HT is a rectangular box about the size and weight of an old-fashioned telephone handset. The antenna protrudes from the top end, and consists of a coiled-up element encased in rubber and wound around a flexible rod. This type of antenna, known as a "rubber duck," is not particularly efficient, but is convenient and rugged. Volume and squelch controls are usually placed next to the antenna. The frequency control knob or buttons are on the top end or the front.

How can we define networking?

In information technology, networking is the construction, design, and use of network, including the physical (cabling, hub, bridge, switch, router, and so forth), the selection and use of telecommunication protocol and computer software for using and managing the network, and the establishment of operation policies and procedures related to the network

What is walkie talkie?

A handie talkie, often referred to by its abbreviation, HT, is a handheld, portable two-way radio transceiver. This type of radio is sometimes called a "walkie talkie" or a "handheld." Handie talkies are popular among amateur radio operators, especially on their VHF and UHF bands at 144 and 432 MHz. Handie talkies are widely used by security personnel, military personnel, and police officers. Most HTs are used in conjunction with repeaters for extended range. Some HTs are designed for the 27-MHz Citizens Band (CB) radio service. A typical HT is a rectangular box about the size and weight of an old-fashioned telephone handset. The antenna protrudes from the top end, and consists of a coiled-up element encased in rubber and wound around a flexible rod. This type of antenna, known as a "rubber duck," is not particularly efficient, but is convenient and rugged. Volume and squelch controls are usually placed next to the antenna. The frequency control knob or buttons are on the top end or the front.

How different layers of OSI model are implemented?

The OSI 7 layers model has clear characteristics. Layers 7 through 4 deal with end to end communications between data source and destinations. Layers 3 to 1 deal with communications between network devices. On the other hand, the seven layers of the OSI model can be divided into two groups: upper layers (layers 7, 6 & 5) and lower layers (layers 4, 3, 2, 1). The upper layers of the OSI model deal with application issues and generally are implemented only in software. The highest layer, the application layer, is closest to the end user. The lower layers of the OSI model handle data transport issues. The physical layer and the data link layer are implemented in hardware and software. The lowest layer, the physical layer, is closest to the physical network medium (the wires, for example) and is responsible for placing data on the medium.

How different layers of OSI model are implemented?

The OSI 7 layers model has clear characteristics. Layers 7 through 4 deal with end to end communications between data source and destinations. Layers 3 to 1 deal with communications between network devices. On the other hand, the seven layers of the OSI model can be divided into two groups: upper layers (layers 7, 6 & 5) and lower layers (layers 4, 3, 2, 1). The upper layers of the OSI model deal with application issues and generally are implemented only in software. The highest layer, the application layer, is closest to the end user. The lower layers of the OSI model handle data transport issues. The physical layer and the data link layer are implemented in hardware and software. The lowest layer, the physical layer, is closest to the physical network medium (the wires, for example) and is responsible for placing data on the medium.

What is the difference between internet and intranet?

Internet The Internet is a system of linked networks that are worldwide in scope and facilitate data communication services such as remote login, file transfer, electronic mail, the World Wide Web and newsgroups. With the meteoric rise in demand for connectivity, the Internet has become a communications highway for millions of users. The Internet was initially restricted to military and academic institutions, but now it is a full-fledged conduit for any and all forms of information and commerce. Internet websites now provide personal, educational, political and economic resources to every corner of the planet. Intranet A network based on TCP/IP protocols (an internet) belonging to an organization, usually a corporation, accessible only by the organization's members, employees, or others with authorization. An intranet's Web sites look and act just like any other Web sites, but the firewall surrounding an intranet fends off unauthorized access. Like the Internet itself, intranets are used to share information. Secure intranets are now the fastest-growing segment of the Internet because they are much less expensive to build and manage than private networks based on proprietary protocols.

What is the difference between hub and switch?

On the outside, hubs and switches appear very similar in that they both have a number of RJ-45 jacks for connecting devices. Inside, however, they work very differently. To understand why switches provide so much more functionality than hubs, you must understand a fundamental limitation of (non-switched) Ethernet: there can only be one device transmitting on a segment at any given time. If two or more devices attempt to transmit at the same time, a collision occurs. (In fact, an Ethernet segment where only one conversation can occur is called a collision domain.) After a collision, all devices must retransmit. As you can imagine, as the number of devices on an Ethernet segment increases, the probability for collisions increase. Because devices must spend more time retransmitting data, the network is perceived to be slow. Before the advent of switches, a network could be divided into segments with a device called a bridge. Bridges have two Ethernet ports. As traffic flows through a network, a bridge learns which devices (identified by the MAC or "hardware" address) are on each side. The bridge then makes decisions to forward or not forward each packet to the other side based on where the destination device is located. A bridge thus divides a network into two collision domains, allowing two independent "conversations" to occur. If a bridge is placed intelligently (e.g., separating two departments and their respective file servers), they can improve network efficiency. Hubs do no processing on network traffic--they simply repeat the incoming signal to all available ports. On a switch, every port acts as a bridge. If each switch port is connected to a single device, each device can, in principle, act independently of every other device. For example, consider a switch with the following devices attached: computer 1 computer 2 computer 3 printer file server uplink to the Internet In this case, computer 1 could be printing a document, while computer 2 connects to a files server, while computer 3 accesses the Internet. Because the switch intelligently forwards traffic only to the devices involved, there can be multiple independent simultaneous conversations.

What is the difference between internet and intranet?

Internet The Internet is a system of linked networks that are worldwide in scope and facilitate data communication services such as remote login, file transfer, electronic mail, the World Wide Web and newsgroups. With the meteoric rise in demand for connectivity, the Internet has become a communications highway for millions of users. The Internet was initially restricted to military and academic institutions, but now it is a full-fledged conduit for any and all forms of information and commerce. Internet websites now provide personal, educational, political and economic resources to every corner of the planet. Intranet A network based on TCP/IP protocols (an internet) belonging to an organization, usually a corporation, accessible only by the organization's members, employees, or others with authorization. An intranet's Web sites look and act just like any other Web sites, but the firewall surrounding an intranet fends off unauthorized access. Like the Internet itself, intranets are used to share information. Secure intranets are now the fastest-growing segment of the Internet because they are much less expensive to build and manage than private networks based on proprietary protocols.

What is the difference between hub and switch?

On the outside, hubs and switches appear very similar in that they both have a number of RJ-45 jacks for connecting devices. Inside, however, they work very differently. To understand why switches provide so much more functionality than hubs, you must understand a fundamental limitation of (non-switched) Ethernet: there can only be one device transmitting on a segment at any given time. If two or more devices attempt to transmit at the same time, a collision occurs. (In fact, an Ethernet segment where only one conversation can occur is called a collision domain.) After a collision, all devices must retransmit. As you can imagine, as the number of devices on an Ethernet segment increases, the probability for collisions increase. Because devices must spend more time retransmitting data, the network is perceived to be slow. Before the advent of switches, a network could be divided into segments with a device called a bridge. Bridges have two Ethernet ports. As traffic flows through a network, a bridge learns which devices (identified by the MAC or "hardware" address) are on each side. The bridge then makes decisions to forward or not forward each packet to the other side based on where the destination device is located. A bridge thus divides a network into two collision domains, allowing two independent "conversations" to occur. If a bridge is placed intelligently (e.g., separating two departments and their respective file servers), they can improve network efficiency. Hubs do no processing on network traffic--they simply repeat the incoming signal to all available ports. On a switch, every port acts as a bridge. If each switch port is connected to a single device, each device can, in principle, act independently of every other device. For example, consider a switch with the following devices attached: computer 1 computer 2 computer 3 printer file server uplink to the Internet In this case, computer 1 could be printing a document, while computer 2 connects to a files server, while computer 3 accesses the Internet. Because the switch intelligently forwards traffic only to the devices involved, there can be multiple independent simultaneous conversations.

What is the difference between radio and microwave?

Although there is no clear-cut demarcation between radio and microwave, electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio waves; waves ranging in frequencies between 1 GHz and 300 GHz are called microwaves. Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television systems.

What is the difference between radio and microwave?

Although there is no clear-cut demarcation between radio and microwave, electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio waves; waves ranging in frequencies between 1 GHz and 300 GHz are called microwaves. Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television systems.

What do we mean by "TAP"?

A tap is a connection to a coaxial cable in which a hole is drilled through the outer shield of the cable so that a clamp can be connected to the inner conductor of the cable. Instead of cutting the cable and attaching connectors to both ends of the severed coaxial cable,

Give some detail about "fault tolerance".

Fault tolerance means the system will not fail because any one component fails. The system also should provide recovery from multiple failures. Components are often over engineered or purposely underutilized to ensure that while performance may be affected during an outage the system will perform within predictable, acceptable bounds

What do we mean by "TAP"?

A tap is a connection to a coaxial cable in which a hole is drilled through the outer shield of the cable so that a clamp can be connected to the inner conductor of the cable. Instead of cutting the cable and attaching connectors to both ends of the severed coaxial cable,

Give some detail about "fault tolerance".

Fault tolerance means the system will not fail because any one component fails. The system also should provide recovery from multiple failures. Components are often over engineered or purposely underutilized to ensure that while performance may be affected during an outage the system will perform within predictable, acceptable bounds

What is the definition of Hub?

Hub is a common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets. A passive hub serves simply as a conduit for the data, enabling it to go from one device (or segment) to another. So-called intelligent hubs include additional features that enable an administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub. Intelligent hubs are also called manageable hubs. A third type of hub, called a switching hub, actually reads the destination address of each packet and then forwards the packet to the correct port.

What is the definition of Hub?

Hub is a common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets. A passive hub serves simply as a conduit for the data, enabling it to go from one device (or segment) to another. So-called intelligent hubs include additional features that enable an administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub. Intelligent hubs are also called manageable hubs. A third type of hub, called a switching hub, actually reads the destination address of each packet and then forwards the packet to the correct port.

What is the relative status of the devices to be linked?

The geographical area in which our devices are present is the relative status of devices.

What is the relative status of the devices to be linked?

The geographical area in which our devices are present is the relative status of devices.

What are the advantages of networking?

 Files can be stored on a central computer (the file server) allowing data to be shared throughout an organization. • Files can be backed up more easily when they are all on a central fileserver rather than when they are scattered across a number of independent workstations. • Networks also allow security to be established, ensuring that the network users may only have access to certain files and applications. • Software and resources can be centrally managed. • Network versions of software often allow for their speedy installation on workstations from the file server. • Expensive devices such as laser printers or scanners can be shared. • Users can access their files from any workstation

What are different factors to choose a network topology?

Working conditions of network, working scenarios, arrangement of links and devices. Depending upon our network what actually we are dealing with and in which geographical area our devices are present, small area available or have large area. All these factors are considered when choosing a Topology.

What are the advantages of networking?

 Files can be stored on a central computer (the file server) allowing data to be shared throughout an organization. • Files can be backed up more easily when they are all on a central fileserver rather than when they are scattered across a number of independent workstations. • Networks also allow security to be established, ensuring that the network users may only have access to certain files and applications. • Software and resources can be centrally managed. • Network versions of software often allow for their speedy installation on workstations from the file server. • Expensive devices such as laser printers or scanners can be shared. • Users can access their files from any workstation

What are different factors to choose a network topology?

Working conditions of network, working scenarios, arrangement of links and devices. Depending upon our network what actually we are dealing with and in which geographical area our devices are present, small area available or have large area. All these factors are considered when choosing a Topology.

What does the terms transit and response time mean? Also tell me about the topic peak load periods.

Transit time is the time taken by the message to travel from source to destination. Response time is the time of response (acknowledgement) from destination to source. Peak load periods are those periods of time in which number of users on a network are more than normal time.

What does the terms transit and response time mean? Also tell me about the topic peak load periods.

Transit time is the time taken by the message to travel from source to destination. Response time is the time of response (acknowledgement) from destination to source. Peak load periods are those periods of time in which number of users on a network are more than normal time.

How can I define Data communication?

Data Communication is the exchange of data (in the form of 0’s and 1’s) between two devices (computers) via some form of the transmission medium. Data communication is communication between computers. Data communication concerns the exchange of digital data between computers. Nowadays, data communication between computers also supports digital speech telephone and videophone, thus supporting direct communication between people.

How could it be more secure using distributed processing?

In this case security is achieved by providing the user with limited access. It means that user can only perform those tasks which are allowed by system designer. Its' simple example is bank's ATM. Where user can't perform operations on database other than provided.

How can I define Data communication?

Data Communication is the exchange of data (in the form of 0’s and 1’s) between two devices (computers) via some form of the transmission medium. Data communication is communication between computers. Data communication concerns the exchange of digital data between computers. Nowadays, data communication between computers also supports digital speech telephone and videophone, thus supporting direct communication between people.

How could it be more secure using distributed processing?

In this case security is achieved by providing the user with limited access. It means that user can only perform those tasks which are allowed by system designer. Its' simple example is bank's ATM. Where user can't perform operations on database other than provided.

What is then difference between T-lines and E-Lines?

Europeans use a version of T lines called E lines. The two systems are conceptually identical, but their capacities differ.

What do we mean by the term session?

Session is the period of time a user interfaces with an application. The user session begins when the user accesses the application and ends when the user quits the application.

What is then difference between T-lines and E-Lines?

Europeans use a version of T lines called E lines. The two systems are conceptually identical, but their capacities differ.

What do we mean by the term session?

Session is the period of time a user interfaces with an application. The user session begins when the user accesses the application and ends when the user quits the application.

Is it possible for digital data to be transmitted via ordinary phone line?

The Digital Subscriber line (DSL) is a newer technology that uses the existing telecommunication networks such as the local loop telephone line (still an analog line) to accomplish high speed delivery of data, voice, video and multimedia.

Is it possible for digital data to be transmitted via ordinary phone line?

The Digital Subscriber line (DSL) is a newer technology that uses the existing telecommunication networks such as the local loop telephone line (still an analog line) to accomplish high speed delivery of data, voice, video and multimedia.

What is a sample?

Sample is the amplitude of an analog signal at some specific interval. It is achieved in pulse amplitude modulation, which is the first step towards analog to digital conversion.

What Is Line Discipline?

Whatever the system, no device in it should be allowed to transmit until that device has evidence that the intended receiver is able to receive and is prepared to accept the transmission. What if the receiver does not expect a transmission, is busy, or is out of commission? With no way to determine the status of intended receiver, the transmitting device may waste its time sending data to a nonfunctioning receiver or may interfere with signals already on the link. The line discipline function of the data link layer oversees the establishment of links and the right of a particular device to transmit at a given time. Line discipline answers the question. Who should send now?

What is a sample?

Sample is the amplitude of an analog signal at some specific interval. It is achieved in pulse amplitude modulation, which is the first step towards analog to digital conversion.

What Is Line Discipline?

Whatever the system, no device in it should be allowed to transmit until that device has evidence that the intended receiver is able to receive and is prepared to accept the transmission. What if the receiver does not expect a transmission, is busy, or is out of commission? With no way to determine the status of intended receiver, the transmitting device may waste its time sending data to a nonfunctioning receiver or may interfere with signals already on the link. The line discipline function of the data link layer oversees the establishment of links and the right of a particular device to transmit at a given time. Line discipline answers the question. Who should send now?

What is distributed processing?

It refers to any of a variety of computer systems that use more than one computer, or processor, to run an application. This includes parallel processing, in which a single computer uses more than one CPU to execute programs. More often, however, distributed processing refers to local-area networks (LANs) designed so that a single program can run simultaneously at various sites. Most distributed processing systems contain sophisticated software that detects idle CPUs on the network and parcels out programs to utilize them. Another form of distributed processing involves distributed databases, databases in which the data is stored across two or more computer systems. The database system keeps track of where the data is so that the distributed nature of the database is not apparent to users.

What is distributed processing?

It refers to any of a variety of computer systems that use more than one computer, or processor, to run an application. This includes parallel processing, in which a single computer uses more than one CPU to execute programs. More often, however, distributed processing refers to local-area networks (LANs) designed so that a single program can run simultaneously at various sites. Most distributed processing systems contain sophisticated software that detects idle CPUs on the network and parcels out programs to utilize them. Another form of distributed processing involves distributed databases, databases in which the data is stored across two or more computer systems. The database system keeps track of where the data is so that the distributed nature of the database is not apparent to users.

Define encryption of data.

Encryption of data: The translation of data into a secret code. Encryption is the most effective way to achieve data security. To read an encrypted file, you must have access to a secret key or password that enables you to decrypt it. Unencrypted data is called plain text; encrypted data is referred to as cipher text.

Can we implement OSI in wireless networks?

Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), a secure specification that allows users to access information via handheld wireless devices, specifies architecture based on layers that follow the OSI model fairly closely. WAP defines network architecture for content delivery over wireless networks. Central to the design of WAP is a network stack based on the OSI model. WAP implements several new networking protocols that perform functions similar to the well-known Web protocols HTTP, TCP, and SSL.

Define encryption of data.

Encryption of data: The translation of data into a secret code. Encryption is the most effective way to achieve data security. To read an encrypted file, you must have access to a secret key or password that enables you to decrypt it. Unencrypted data is called plain text; encrypted data is referred to as cipher text.

Can we implement OSI in wireless networks?

Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), a secure specification that allows users to access information via handheld wireless devices, specifies architecture based on layers that follow the OSI model fairly closely. WAP defines network architecture for content delivery over wireless networks. Central to the design of WAP is a network stack based on the OSI model. WAP implements several new networking protocols that perform functions similar to the well-known Web protocols HTTP, TCP, and SSL.

Explain VPN (Virtual Private Network

A virtual private network (VPN) is a way to use a public telecommunication infrastructure, such as the Internet, to provide remote offices or individual users with secure access to their organization's network. A virtual private network can be contrasted with an expensive system of owned or leased lines that can only be used by one organization. The goal of a VPN is to provide the organization with the same capabilities, but at a much lower cost.

Define Protocols

Protocol is an agreed-upon format for transmitting data between two devices. The protocol determines the following: 1) The type of error checking to be used. 2) Data compression method, if any. 3) How the sending device will indicate that it has finished sending a message? 4) How the receiving device will indicate that it has received a message?

Explain VPN (Virtual Private Network

A virtual private network (VPN) is a way to use a public telecommunication infrastructure, such as the Internet, to provide remote offices or individual users with secure access to their organization's network. A virtual private network can be contrasted with an expensive system of owned or leased lines that can only be used by one organization. The goal of a VPN is to provide the organization with the same capabilities, but at a much lower cost.

Define Protocols

Protocol is an agreed-upon format for transmitting data between two devices. The protocol determines the following: 1) The type of error checking to be used. 2) Data compression method, if any. 3) How the sending device will indicate that it has finished sending a message? 4) How the receiving device will indicate that it has received a message?

What is remote data communication?

Data Communication is considered remote, if the devices are farther apart.

What is remote data communication?

Data Communication is considered remote, if the devices are farther apart.

What do we mean by capacity of the channel?

Channel capacity: The maximum possible information transfer rate through a channel, subject to specified constraints.

What do we mean by capacity of the channel?

Channel capacity: The maximum possible information transfer rate through a channel, subject to specified constraints.

What are routers, repeaters and bridges?

Router: Routers relay packets among multiple interconnection networks. Router is device that determines the next network point to which a data packet should be forwarded enroute toward its destination. Routers create or maintain a table of the available routes and use this information to determine the best route for a given data packet.

What are routers, repeaters and bridges?

Router: Routers relay packets among multiple interconnection networks. Router is device that determines the next network point to which a data packet should be forwarded enroute toward its destination. Routers create or maintain a table of the available routes and use this information to determine the best route for a given data packet.

What is the difference between WAP and GPRS?

Wireless Application Protocol, a secure specification that allows users to access information instantly via handheld wireless devices such as mobile phones. Wireless Application Protocol (or WAP) is envisioned as a comprehensive and scalable protocol designed to use with mobile phones using Short Message Services (SMS), General Packet Radio Services (GPRS), CDMA and GSM.

What is the difference between WAP and GPRS?

Wireless Application Protocol, a secure specification that allows users to access information instantly via handheld wireless devices such as mobile phones. Wireless Application Protocol (or WAP) is envisioned as a comprehensive and scalable protocol designed to use with mobile phones using Short Message Services (SMS), General Packet Radio Services (GPRS), CDMA and GSM.

What is Tx and Rx?

Tx is the abrivation used for transmission/ transmitor and Rx is reciever.

What do we mean by wireless networking?

The term wireless networking refers to technology that enables two or more computers to communicate using standard network protocols, but without network cabling. Strictly speaking, any technology that does this could be called wireless networking. The current buzzword however generally refers to wireless LANs.

What is PDU in OSI Model?

Normally a communication request originates at the highest layer (Application Layer). The request is passed down through the lower layers in the form of a packet called a protocol data unit (PDU). Layers in the protocol stack communicate with their adjacent layers via one or more Service Access Points (SAP). Each succeeding layer in the stack adds its own information to the PDU that will be read by its counterpart (peer) layer on the receiving system. Once the data arrives at the lower layers, the PDU is encoded into data frames and placed onto the cable for transmission. The data frames make their way to the receiving system and the entire process is reversed as the PDU makes its way up the protocol stack. As it moves up the stack, each layer "unwrap" the PDU and receives the information from its peer layer on the sending system.

What is Tx and Rx?

Tx is the abrivation used for transmission/ transmitor and Rx is reciever.

What do we mean by wireless networking?

The term wireless networking refers to technology that enables two or more computers to communicate using standard network protocols, but without network cabling. Strictly speaking, any technology that does this could be called wireless networking. The current buzzword however generally refers to wireless LANs.

What is PDU in OSI Model?

Normally a communication request originates at the highest layer (Application Layer). The request is passed down through the lower layers in the form of a packet called a protocol data unit (PDU). Layers in the protocol stack communicate with their adjacent layers via one or more Service Access Points (SAP). Each succeeding layer in the stack adds its own information to the PDU that will be read by its counterpart (peer) layer on the receiving system. Once the data arrives at the lower layers, the PDU is encoded into data frames and placed onto the cable for transmission. The data frames make their way to the receiving system and the entire process is reversed as the PDU makes its way up the protocol stack. As it moves up the stack, each layer "unwrap" the PDU and receives the information from its peer layer on the sending system.

What is the differences between OSI and TCP/IP Model?

The ISO/OSI protocol is a 7 layer reference model that was designed after TCP/IP model, which only has 4 layers. That said, the differences between the two are only minor.
The 7 layers of the OSI Protocol Stack are as follows:
7. Application: end user services such as email
6. Presentation: data problems and data compression
5. Session: authentication and authorization
4. Transport: guarantee end-to-end delivery of packets
3. Network: packet routing
2. Data Link: transmit and receive packets
1. Physical: The physical connection or cable itself.
Of these 7 layers, the 4 layers the TCP/IP Protocol Stack use are as follows:
5. Application: authentication, compression, and end user services
4. Transport: handles the flow of data between systems and provides access to the network for applications via the BSD socket library
3. Network: packet routing
2. Link: Kernel OS/device driver interface to the network interface on the computer.
The main differences between OSI and TCP/IP are:
The application layer in TCP/IP handles the responsibilities of layers 5,6, and 7 in the OSI model. The transport layer in TCP/IP does not always guarantee reliable delivery of packets as the transport layer in the OSI model does.
So as you can see there is not too much difference between the models. In terms of software implementation TCP/IP looks like this:
Application Layer: some of the applications covered are SMTP (mail), Telnet, FTP, Rlogin, NFS, NIS, and LPD.
Transport Layer: the transport uses two protocols, UDP (User Datagram Protocol) and TCP, which does not guarantee packet delivery and applications which use this must provide their own means of verifying delivery. TCP guarantees delivery of packets to the applications that use it.
Network Layer: the network layer is concerned with packet routing and used low level protocols such as ICMP, IP, and IGMP.
Link Layer: the link layer is concerned with the actual transmittal of packets as well as IP to Ethernet address translation. This layer is concerned with Arp, the device driver and Rarp.

What is the differences between OSI and TCP/IP Model?

The ISO/OSI protocol is a 7 layer reference model that was designed after TCP/IP model, which only has 4 layers. That said, the differences between the two are only minor.
The 7 layers of the OSI Protocol Stack are as follows:
7. Application: end user services such as email
6. Presentation: data problems and data compression
5. Session: authentication and authorization
4. Transport: guarantee end-to-end delivery of packets
3. Network: packet routing
2. Data Link: transmit and receive packets
1. Physical: The physical connection or cable itself.
Of these 7 layers, the 4 layers the TCP/IP Protocol Stack use are as follows:
5. Application: authentication, compression, and end user services
4. Transport: handles the flow of data between systems and provides access to the network for applications via the BSD socket library
3. Network: packet routing
2. Link: Kernel OS/device driver interface to the network interface on the computer.
The main differences between OSI and TCP/IP are:
The application layer in TCP/IP handles the responsibilities of layers 5,6, and 7 in the OSI model. The transport layer in TCP/IP does not always guarantee reliable delivery of packets as the transport layer in the OSI model does.
So as you can see there is not too much difference between the models. In terms of software implementation TCP/IP looks like this:
Application Layer: some of the applications covered are SMTP (mail), Telnet, FTP, Rlogin, NFS, NIS, and LPD.
Transport Layer: the transport uses two protocols, UDP (User Datagram Protocol) and TCP, which does not guarantee packet delivery and applications which use this must provide their own means of verifying delivery. TCP guarantees delivery of packets to the applications that use it.
Network Layer: the network layer is concerned with packet routing and used low level protocols such as ICMP, IP, and IGMP.
Link Layer: the link layer is concerned with the actual transmittal of packets as well as IP to Ethernet address translation. This layer is concerned with Arp, the device driver and Rarp.

What is attenuation?

Attenuation is signal loss due to the diminishing availability of signal energy, or signal power. As a analog or digital signal traverses across a medium, it fades. High attenuation may lead to the inability to recover the signal on the far end. Signal repeaters may be used on the transmission path to periodically boost the signal strength. Baseband transmission is extremely limited to attenuation. Broad-band much less so, In addition, wireless communications is much less susceptible to attenuation that is wire-line communications such as x-DSL or cable modems.

What is difference between logical address and physical address?

The OSI model is a good place to start to learn more about the differences between physical and logical addressing. Think of the physical address as the 48-bit MAC address that manufacturers encode in their network interface cards (NICs). This type of address is unique, referred to as the Ethernet or hardware address, and cannot be changed. The MAC or Ethernet address is associated with Layer 2 (data Link) of the OSI Model. The logical address is a 32-bit IP address that is not embedded in the network card but it is assigned to it for the purpose of routing between networks. This type of address operates at Layer 3 (network) of the OSI Model.

What is attenuation?

Attenuation is signal loss due to the diminishing availability of signal energy, or signal power. As a analog or digital signal traverses across a medium, it fades. High attenuation may lead to the inability to recover the signal on the far end. Signal repeaters may be used on the transmission path to periodically boost the signal strength. Baseband transmission is extremely limited to attenuation. Broad-band much less so, In addition, wireless communications is much less susceptible to attenuation that is wire-line communications such as x-DSL or cable modems.

What is difference between logical address and physical address?

The OSI model is a good place to start to learn more about the differences between physical and logical addressing. Think of the physical address as the 48-bit MAC address that manufacturers encode in their network interface cards (NICs). This type of address is unique, referred to as the Ethernet or hardware address, and cannot be changed. The MAC or Ethernet address is associated with Layer 2 (data Link) of the OSI Model. The logical address is a 32-bit IP address that is not embedded in the network card but it is assigned to it for the purpose of routing between networks. This type of address operates at Layer 3 (network) of the OSI Model.

What is PCMCIA?

PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association) is an international standards body and trade association with over 100 member companies that was founded in 1989 to establish standards for Integrated Circuit cards and to promote interchangeability among mobile computers where ruggedness, low power, and small size were critical. As the needs of mobile computer users has changed, so has PCMCIA. By 1991, PCMCIA had defined an I/O interface for the same 68 pin connector initially used for memory cards. At the same time, the Socket Services Specification was added and was soon followed by the Card Services Specifcation as developers realized that common software would be needed to enhance compatibility.

Will VoIP work with DSL?

Yes, VoIP works with DSL. Many of the phone companies currently providing DSL and landline phone services are in the process of unbundling DSL and phone services.

What is PCMCIA?

PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association) is an international standards body and trade association with over 100 member companies that was founded in 1989 to establish standards for Integrated Circuit cards and to promote interchangeability among mobile computers where ruggedness, low power, and small size were critical. As the needs of mobile computer users has changed, so has PCMCIA. By 1991, PCMCIA had defined an I/O interface for the same 68 pin connector initially used for memory cards. At the same time, the Socket Services Specification was added and was soon followed by the Card Services Specifcation as developers realized that common software would be needed to enhance compatibility.

Will VoIP work with DSL?

Yes, VoIP works with DSL. Many of the phone companies currently providing DSL and landline phone services are in the process of unbundling DSL and phone services.

How can I define Data communication?

Data communication is the name of a communication between computers. More specifically, the exchange of data in the form 0's and 1's between two devices (computers) via some form of the transmission medium. Nowadays, data communication between computers also supports digital speech telephone and videophone, thus following direct communication between people.

How can I define Data communication?

Data communication is the name of a communication between computers. More specifically, the exchange of data in the form 0's and 1's between two devices (computers) via some form of the transmission medium. Nowadays, data communication between computers also supports digital speech telephone and videophone, thus following direct communication between people.

What is the main problem with ASK (amplitude Shift Keying)?

The main problem with ASK is the noise. Noise usually affected the amplitude so it is most affected by Noise.

What are the basic components of a data communication system ?

There are five basic components of a data communication. These are as follows:- 1) message 2) sender 3) receiver 4) medium 5) protocol

What is the main problem with ASK (amplitude Shift Keying)?

The main problem with ASK is the noise. Noise usually affected the amplitude so it is most affected by Noise.

What are the basic components of a data communication system ?

There are five basic components of a data communication. These are as follows:- 1) message 2) sender 3) receiver 4) medium 5) protocol

What are regulatory Agencies?

All communication technology is subject to regulation and laws by government agencies. The purpose is to protect Public Interest by regulating Radio, Television and Cable Communications.

What are regulatory Agencies?

All communication technology is subject to regulation and laws by government agencies. The purpose is to protect Public Interest by regulating Radio, Television and Cable Communications.

Give some detail about "fault tolerance".

Fault tolerance means the system will not fail because any one component fails. The system also should provide recovery from multiple failures. Components are often over engineered or purposely underutilized to ensure that while performance may be affected during an outage the system will perform within predictable, acceptable bounds.

Give some detail about "fault tolerance".

Fault tolerance means the system will not fail because any one component fails. The system also should provide recovery from multiple failures. Components are often over engineered or purposely underutilized to ensure that while performance may be affected during an outage the system will perform within predictable, acceptable bounds.

Describe the Marketing’s Impact on Society as a Whole and the principles of socially responsible marketing.

Responsible marketers discover what consumers want and respond with the right products, priced to give good value to buyers, and profit to the producer. The marketing concept is a philosophy of customer satisfaction and mutual gain. Its practice leads the economy by an invisible hand to satisfy the many and changing needs of millions of consumers. Marketing receives much criticism. Some of this is justified and some is not. Social critics claim that certain marketing practices hurt individual consumers, society as a whole, and other business firms.. Marketing’s Impact on Society as a Whole Some criticisms have also been leveled at marketing because of its perceived negative impact on society as a whole. Criticisms include marketing creating: i. False wants and too much materialism. People are judged by what they own rather than who they are. This criticism perhaps overstates the power of business to create needs. Our needs are influenced by other forces than just marketing needs. Some even see materialism as a positive force. ii. Producing too few social goods. There needs to be more of a balance between social (public) and private goods. Options are the government could require more safety be built into products (autos for example), or make consumers pay social costs. iii. Cultural pollution. Constant assaults on privacy by advertising and noise clutter. Marketing answers by saying: Marketers hope that their ads reach primarily the target audience, ads make much of television and radio free to users and keep down the costs of magazines and newspapers. iv. Too much political power. companies do promote and protect their own interests. They have a right to. Counter forces are in place to offset business promotional and political power. Key Principles for Public policy towards Marketing: Certain public policy principles can be used to make the marketing more effective these principles include full consumer and producer freedom, potential harms should be eliminated, producers should meet the basic needs of the consumers, there should be economic efficiency consumers and producers both should be on beneficent in practicing the exchange process, producer should ensure the innovation , consumer should be provided full knowledge about the products and should be protected against any sort of unethical and illegal practices by the producers,

Describe the Marketing’s Impact on Society as a Whole and the principles of socially responsible marketing.

Responsible marketers discover what consumers want and respond with the right products, priced to give good value to buyers, and profit to the producer. The marketing concept is a philosophy of customer satisfaction and mutual gain. Its practice leads the economy by an invisible hand to satisfy the many and changing needs of millions of consumers. Marketing receives much criticism. Some of this is justified and some is not. Social critics claim that certain marketing practices hurt individual consumers, society as a whole, and other business firms.. Marketing’s Impact on Society as a Whole Some criticisms have also been leveled at marketing because of its perceived negative impact on society as a whole. Criticisms include marketing creating: i. False wants and too much materialism. People are judged by what they own rather than who they are. This criticism perhaps overstates the power of business to create needs. Our needs are influenced by other forces than just marketing needs. Some even see materialism as a positive force. ii. Producing too few social goods. There needs to be more of a balance between social (public) and private goods. Options are the government could require more safety be built into products (autos for example), or make consumers pay social costs. iii. Cultural pollution. Constant assaults on privacy by advertising and noise clutter. Marketing answers by saying: Marketers hope that their ads reach primarily the target audience, ads make much of television and radio free to users and keep down the costs of magazines and newspapers. iv. Too much political power. companies do promote and protect their own interests. They have a right to. Counter forces are in place to offset business promotional and political power. Key Principles for Public policy towards Marketing: Certain public policy principles can be used to make the marketing more effective these principles include full consumer and producer freedom, potential harms should be eliminated, producers should meet the basic needs of the consumers, there should be economic efficiency consumers and producers both should be on beneficent in practicing the exchange process, producer should ensure the innovation , consumer should be provided full knowledge about the products and should be protected against any sort of unethical and illegal practices by the producers,

What is the classification of consumer products

Convenience products the customer usually buys frequently, immediately, and with a minimum of comparison and buying effort. Examples include soap, candy, newspapers, and fast food. • Comparison products are less frequently purchased products and services that customers compare carefully on suitability, quality, price, and style. Examples include furniture, clothing, used cars, major appliances, and hotel and motel services. • Shopping products marketers usually distribute their products through fewer outlets but provide deeper sales support to help customers in their comparison efforts.• Specialty products are consumer products and services with unique characteristics for which a significant group of buyers is willing to make a special purchase effort. Examples include specific brands and types of cars, designer clothes, and the services of medical or legal specialists. • Unsought products are consumer products that the consumer either does not know about or knows about but does not normally think of buying. Classic examples of known but unsought products and services are life insurance and blood donations to the Red Cross.

Briefly discuss the Personal & Non Personal communication levels.

Personal Communication Channels In personal communication channels, two or more people communicate directly with each other. They might communicate face to face, over the telephone, through the mail, or even through an Internet "chat." Personal communication channels are effective because they allow for personal addressing and feedback. Some personal communication channels are controlled directly by the company. Non personal Communication Channels Non personal communication channels are media that carry messages without personal contact or feedback. Major media include print media (newspapers, magazines, direct mail), broadcast media (radio, television), display media (billboards, signs, posters), and online media (online services, Web sites).. Thus, lawyers' offices and banks are designed to communicate confidence and other qualities that might be valued by their clients. For example, public relations departments arrange press conferences, grand openings, shows and exhibits, public tours, and other events

What is the classification of consumer products

Convenience products the customer usually buys frequently, immediately, and with a minimum of comparison and buying effort. Examples include soap, candy, newspapers, and fast food. • Comparison products are less frequently purchased products and services that customers compare carefully on suitability, quality, price, and style. Examples include furniture, clothing, used cars, major appliances, and hotel and motel services. • Shopping products marketers usually distribute their products through fewer outlets but provide deeper sales support to help customers in their comparison efforts.• Specialty products are consumer products and services with unique characteristics for which a significant group of buyers is willing to make a special purchase effort. Examples include specific brands and types of cars, designer clothes, and the services of medical or legal specialists. • Unsought products are consumer products that the consumer either does not know about or knows about but does not normally think of buying. Classic examples of known but unsought products and services are life insurance and blood donations to the Red Cross.

Briefly discuss the Personal & Non Personal communication levels.

Personal Communication Channels In personal communication channels, two or more people communicate directly with each other. They might communicate face to face, over the telephone, through the mail, or even through an Internet "chat." Personal communication channels are effective because they allow for personal addressing and feedback. Some personal communication channels are controlled directly by the company. Non personal Communication Channels Non personal communication channels are media that carry messages without personal contact or feedback. Major media include print media (newspapers, magazines, direct mail), broadcast media (radio, television), display media (billboards, signs, posters), and online media (online services, Web sites).. Thus, lawyers' offices and banks are designed to communicate confidence and other qualities that might be valued by their clients. For example, public relations departments arrange press conferences, grand openings, shows and exhibits, public tours, and other events

Write down the Porter’s 5 Forces Model of Competition.

Threat of New Entrants Ratio of new entrants in the industry greater the ratio greater will be intensity of competition.• Bargaining Power of Buyers: When completion is intense and number of manufacturer is greater the buyer have more options for product switching over this will increase the buying power of buyer• Threat of Substitute: As obvious from the term greater the threat of new entrants will result in greater higher completion that in tern will result in increase in the number of substitutes• Bargaining Power of Suppliers: Greater number of the supplier will provide the stronger buying power to the manufacturer/customer and vice versa• Rivalry Among Competing Firms in Industry: Larger number of the manufacturers and greater number of product variety increases the rivalry among the competitors, which demands for more quality and customer satisfy9ng products in order to meet the competition.

What is the classification of Advertising Objectives by primary purpose

1). Informative advertising, which is used to inform consumers about a new product 2). Persuasive advertising which is used to build selective demand for a brand by persuading consumers that it offers the best quality for their money. 3). Comparison advertising which is advertising that compares one brand directly or indirectly to one or more other brands. 4). Reminder advertising, which is used to keep consumers thinking about a product. This form of advertising is more important for mature products.

Write down the Porter’s 5 Forces Model of Competition.

Threat of New Entrants Ratio of new entrants in the industry greater the ratio greater will be intensity of competition.• Bargaining Power of Buyers: When completion is intense and number of manufacturer is greater the buyer have more options for product switching over this will increase the buying power of buyer• Threat of Substitute: As obvious from the term greater the threat of new entrants will result in greater higher completion that in tern will result in increase in the number of substitutes• Bargaining Power of Suppliers: Greater number of the supplier will provide the stronger buying power to the manufacturer/customer and vice versa• Rivalry Among Competing Firms in Industry: Larger number of the manufacturers and greater number of product variety increases the rivalry among the competitors, which demands for more quality and customer satisfy9ng products in order to meet the competition.

What is the classification of Advertising Objectives by primary purpose

1). Informative advertising, which is used to inform consumers about a new product 2). Persuasive advertising which is used to build selective demand for a brand by persuading consumers that it offers the best quality for their money. 3). Comparison advertising which is advertising that compares one brand directly or indirectly to one or more other brands. 4). Reminder advertising, which is used to keep consumers thinking about a product. This form of advertising is more important for mature products.

Discuss the importance of E. Marketing and benefits of using internet as tool to reach the customers.

E-Marketing : The process of utilizing Information Technology in the conception, distribution, promotion, and pricing of goods, services, and ideas to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organizational objectives. General rules of E. Marketing are: 1. Power Shift from sellers to buyers 2. Increasing Velocity 3. Death of Distance 4. Global reach 5. Time compression 6. Knowledge management is key 7. Market deconstruction 8. Intellectual capital rules Buyer Benefits of E-Commerce • Convenience• Easy and private• Greater product access/selection• Access to comparative information • Interactive and immediate Seller Benefits of E-Commerce: • Relationship building• Reduced costs• Increased speed and efficiency• Flexibility• Global access, global reach Internet is a new tool to reach consumers initially different tools like telephone, postal services, radio and televisions were used as a source to communicate to consumers but now a days along with these tools internet is also being used as a source to reach and to communicate to customers/consumers. Using internet companies can provide their information to customers through websites, search engines can be used to coordinate the consumers and producers, customers can used the e. mails to connect to the producers. Customers and consumers not only acquire information through internet but also can make online purchases by placing orders to desired producers, it provides convenience and time saving for both consumers and producers. Companies can reduce their need of inventory stocks by using the inventory systems. Online banners, website and e. mails can be used as personalized communication tools.

Why to conduct business research

Marketing Research is a Systematic & objective process of designing, gathering, analyzing & reporting information that is used to solve a specific problem. It Provides information for aid in making business related decisions, to Identify opportunities and generate & refine actions. It is important for the mangers for many decisions like:• Helps reduce risk inherent in decision-making• Provides an important link to customers• Allows implementation of the business concept• Enables managers to identify & understand stakeholders wants & needs and to develop appropriate strategies to meet these needs

Discuss the importance of E. Marketing and benefits of using internet as tool to reach the customers.

E-Marketing : The process of utilizing Information Technology in the conception, distribution, promotion, and pricing of goods, services, and ideas to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organizational objectives. General rules of E. Marketing are: 1. Power Shift from sellers to buyers 2. Increasing Velocity 3. Death of Distance 4. Global reach 5. Time compression 6. Knowledge management is key 7. Market deconstruction 8. Intellectual capital rules Buyer Benefits of E-Commerce • Convenience• Easy and private• Greater product access/selection• Access to comparative information • Interactive and immediate Seller Benefits of E-Commerce: • Relationship building• Reduced costs• Increased speed and efficiency• Flexibility• Global access, global reach Internet is a new tool to reach consumers initially different tools like telephone, postal services, radio and televisions were used as a source to communicate to consumers but now a days along with these tools internet is also being used as a source to reach and to communicate to customers/consumers. Using internet companies can provide their information to customers through websites, search engines can be used to coordinate the consumers and producers, customers can used the e. mails to connect to the producers. Customers and consumers not only acquire information through internet but also can make online purchases by placing orders to desired producers, it provides convenience and time saving for both consumers and producers. Companies can reduce their need of inventory stocks by using the inventory systems. Online banners, website and e. mails can be used as personalized communication tools.

Why to conduct business research

Marketing Research is a Systematic & objective process of designing, gathering, analyzing & reporting information that is used to solve a specific problem. It Provides information for aid in making business related decisions, to Identify opportunities and generate & refine actions. It is important for the mangers for many decisions like:• Helps reduce risk inherent in decision-making• Provides an important link to customers• Allows implementation of the business concept• Enables managers to identify & understand stakeholders wants & needs and to develop appropriate strategies to meet these needs

What image come to mind when you hear the word Marketing

Some people think of advertisements or brochures, while others think of public relations. The truth is, all of these—and many more things—make up the field of marketing. The Knowledge Exchange Business Encyclopedia defines marketing as “planning and executing the strategy involved in moving a good or service from producer to consumer.” In simplified terms, marketers and others help move goods and services through the creation and production process; at that point, marketers help move the goods and services to consumers. But the connection goes even further: Marketing can have a significant impact on all areas of the business and vice versa.

What is meant by Price .What factors should be considered while setting price.

All profit and nonprofit organizations must set prices on their products and services. Price goes by many names (rent, tuition, fee, fare, rate, interest, toll, premium, et cetera). Price is the amount of money charged for a product or service or the sum of the values that consumers exchange for the benefits of having or using the product or service. A company's pricing decisions are affected by both internal company factors and external environmental factors a) Internal Factors Affecting Pricing Decision Internal factors affecting pricing include the company's marketing objectives, marketing mix strategy, costs, and organizational considerations. b) External Factors Affecting Pricing Decisions External factors that affect pricing decisions include the nature of the market and demand, competition, and other environmental elements.

What image come to mind when you hear the word Marketing

Some people think of advertisements or brochures, while others think of public relations. The truth is, all of these—and many more things—make up the field of marketing. The Knowledge Exchange Business Encyclopedia defines marketing as “planning and executing the strategy involved in moving a good or service from producer to consumer.” In simplified terms, marketers and others help move goods and services through the creation and production process; at that point, marketers help move the goods and services to consumers. But the connection goes even further: Marketing can have a significant impact on all areas of the business and vice versa.

What is meant by Price .What factors should be considered while setting price.

All profit and nonprofit organizations must set prices on their products and services. Price goes by many names (rent, tuition, fee, fare, rate, interest, toll, premium, et cetera). Price is the amount of money charged for a product or service or the sum of the values that consumers exchange for the benefits of having or using the product or service. A company's pricing decisions are affected by both internal company factors and external environmental factors a) Internal Factors Affecting Pricing Decision Internal factors affecting pricing include the company's marketing objectives, marketing mix strategy, costs, and organizational considerations. b) External Factors Affecting Pricing Decisions External factors that affect pricing decisions include the nature of the market and demand, competition, and other environmental elements.

Explain impact of social class on consumer buying behavior?

Almost every society has some form of social class structure. Social Classes are society's relatively permanent and ordered divisions whose members share similar values, interests, and behaviors. Social class is not determined by a single factor, such as income, but is measured as a combination of occupation, income, education, wealth, and other variables. In some social systems, members of different classes are reared for certain roles and cannot change their social positions. Marketers are interested in social class because people within a given social class tend to exhibit similar buying behavior. Social classes show distinct product and brand preferences in areas such as clothing, home furnishings, leisure activity, and automobiles.

Explain impact of social class on consumer buying behavior?

Almost every society has some form of social class structure. Social Classes are society's relatively permanent and ordered divisions whose members share similar values, interests, and behaviors. Social class is not determined by a single factor, such as income, but is measured as a combination of occupation, income, education, wealth, and other variables. In some social systems, members of different classes are reared for certain roles and cannot change their social positions. Marketers are interested in social class because people within a given social class tend to exhibit similar buying behavior. Social classes show distinct product and brand preferences in areas such as clothing, home furnishings, leisure activity, and automobiles.

Explain different types of behavior shown by the buyers while purchasing a product.

Complex Buying Behavior Consumers undertake complex buying behavior when they are highly involved in a purchase and perceive. Consumers may be highly involved when the product is expensive, risky, purchased infrequently, and highly self-expressive This buyer will pass through a learning process, first developing beliefs about the product, then attitudes, and then making a thoughtful purchase choice. Marketers of high-involvement products must understand the information-gathering and evaluation behavior of high-involvement consumers. They need to help buyers learn about product-class attributes and their relative importance, and about what the company's brand offers on the important attributes. Marketers need to differentiate their brand's features, perhaps by describing the brand's benefits using print media with long copy. They must motivate store salespeople and the buyer's acquaintances to influence the final brand choice.• Dissonance-Reducing Buying Behavior Dissonance reducing buying behavior occurs when consumers are highly involved with an expensive, infrequent, or risky purchase, but see little difference among brands. For example, consumers buying carpeting may face a high-involvement decision because carpeting is expensive and self-expressive. Yet buyers may consider most carpet brands in a given price range to be the same. In this case, because perceived brand differences are not large, buyers may shop around to learn what is available, but buy relatively quickly. They may respond primarily to a good price or to purchase convenience. After the purchase, consumers might experience post purchase dissonance (after-sale discomfort) when they notice certain disadvantages of the purchased carpet brand or hear favorable things about brands not purchased. To counter such dissonance, the marketer's after-sale communications should provide evidence and support to help consumers feel good about their brand choices.• Habitual Buying Behavior Habitual buying behavior occurs under conditions of low consumer involvement and little significant brand difference. For example, take salt. Consumers have little involvement in this product category—they simply go to the store and reach for a brand. If they keep reaching for the same brand, it is out of habit rather than strong brand loyalty. Consumers appear to have low involvement with most low-cost, frequently purchased products. In such cases, consumer behavior does not pass through the usual belief-attitude-behavior sequence. Consumers do not search extensively for information about the brands, evaluate brand characteristics, and make weighty decisions about which brands to buy. Instead, they passively receive information as they watch television or read magazines. Ad repetition creates brand familiarity rather than brand conviction. Consumers do not form strong attitudes toward a brand; they select the brand because it is familiar. Because they are not highly involved with the product, consumers may not evaluate the choice even after purchase. Thus, the buying process involves brand beliefs formed by passive learning, followed by purchase behavior, which may or may not be followed by evaluation. Variety-Seeking Buying Behavior Consumers undertake variety seeking buying behavior in situations characterized by low consumer involvement but significant perceived brand differences. In such cases, consumers often do a lot of brand switching. For example, when buying cookies, a consumer may hold some beliefs, choose a cookie brand without much evaluation, then evaluate that brand during consumption. But the next time, the consumer might pick another brand out of boredom or simply to try something different. Brand switching occurs for the sake of variety rather than because of dissatisfaction. In such product categories, the marketing strategy may differ for the market leader and minor brands. The market leader will try to encourage habitual buying behavior by dominating shelf space, keeping shelves fully stocked, and running frequent reminder advertising. Challenger firms will encourage variety seeking by offering lower prices, special deals, coupons, free samples, and advertising that presents reasons for trying something new.